Brain Tumor

BrainTumor

Brain Tumor

The symptoms of brain tumors depend on their size and location in the brain.
Symptoms often are caused by damage to vital tissue and pressure on the brain as the tumor grows within the limited space in the skull. They may be caused by swelling and a buildup of fluid around the tumor, a condition called edema. Symptoms also may be due to hydrocephalus, which occurs when the tumor blocks the flow of cerebrospinal fluid and causes a build-up in the ventricles.

If a brain tumor grows very slowly, its symptoms may not appear for some time. The most frequent symptoms of brain tumors include:

• Headaches that tend to be worse in the morning and ease during the day
• Seizures or convulsions
• Nausea or vomiting
• Weakness or loss of feeling in the arms or legs
• Stumbling or lack of coordination in walking
• Abnormal eye movements or changes in vision
• Drowsiness
• Changes in personality or memory
• Changes in speech
These symptoms may be caused by brain tumors or by other problems. Diagnostic tests can be performed to determine if the cause of your symptoms is a brain tumor and if it is a primary or secondary one. Reviewed by health care specialists at UCSF Medical Cent.

 

Brain Diagnosis

To find the cause of your symptoms, your doctor will ask about your personal and family medical history and perform a complete physical examination. In addition to checking general signs of health, your doctor will perform a neurologic exam. This includes checks for alertness, muscle strength, coordination, reflexes and response to pain. Your doctor also examines the eyes to look for swelling caused by a tumor pressing on the nerve that connects the eye and the brain.

Depending on the results of the physical and neurologic examinations, your doctor may request one or both of the following:

• Computerized Tomography (CT) Scan — Computerized tomography (CT) or computerized axial tomography (CAT) scan is a series of detailed pictures of the brain, created by a computer linked to an X-ray machine. In some cases, a special dye is injected into a vein before the scan. The dye helps to show differences in the tissues of the brain.
• Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) — Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) provides pictures of the brain, using a powerful magnet linked to a computer. MRI is especially useful in diagnosing brain tumors because it can "see" through the bones of the skull to the tissue underneath. A special dye may be used to enhance the likelihood of detecting a brain tumor.

The doctor may also request other tests such as:

• Angiogram or Arteriogram — These tests are a series of X-rays taken after a special dye is injected into an artery, usually in the area where the abdomen joins the top of the leg. The dye, which flows through the blood vessels of the brain, can be seen on X-rays. These X-rays can show the tumor and connecting blood vessels.
• Brain Scan — A brain scan reveals areas of abnormal growth in the brain and records them on special film. A small amount of a radioactive material is injected into a vein. This dye is absorbed by the tumor and the growth shows up on the film. The radiation leaves the body within six hours and is not dangerous.
• Functional Imaging — This test utilizes MRI or magnetic source imaging to identify functional pathways in the brain (motor, visual, language) and alerts the surgeon to potential injury to these pathways during surgery before damage could occur.
• Myelogram — A myelogram, sometimes called a lumbosacral spine X-ray, is an X-ray or computerized tomography (CT) scan of the spine. A special dye is injected into the cerebrospinal fluid in the spine and the patient is tilted to allow the dye to mix with the fluid. This test may be done when the doctor suspects a tumor in the spinal cord.
• MR Spectroscopy — This is a modified MRI scan that shows metabolic activity within a brain tumor. This has largely replaced positron emission tomography (PET) scanning due to its superior resolution and accuracy.

Reviewed by health care specialists at UCSF Medical Center.

Brain Tumor
Treatment

Treatment for brain tumors depends on a number of factors including the type, location and size of the tumor as well as the patient's age and general health. Treatment methods and schedules differ for children and adults.
Brain tumors are treated with surgery, radiation therapy and chemotherapy. Our doctors also are studying a vaccine for treating a recurrent cancer of the central nervous system that occurs primarily in the brain, known as glioma.
Depending on your needs, several methods may be used. Our team includes neurosurgeons, medical oncologists, radiation oncologists, nurses, a dietitian and a social worker, who work together to provide the best possible care.
Before treatment begins, most patients are given steroids, drugs that relieve swelling or edema. Your may receive anticonvulsant medicine to prevent or control seizures.
If hydrocephalus is present, you may need a shunt to drain cerebrospinal fluid. A shunt is a long, thin tube placed in a ventricle of the brain and then threaded under the skin to another part of the body, usually the abdomen. It works like a drainpipe. Excess fluid is carried away from the brain and is absorbed in the abdomen. In some cases, the fluid is drained into the heart.

Surgery

Surgery is the usual treatment for most brain tumors. To remove a brain tumor, a neurosurgeon makes an opening in the skull. This operation is called a craniotomy. Whenever possible, the surgeon attempts to remove the entire tumor. If the tumor cannot be completely removed without damaging vital brain tissue, your doctor may remove as much of the tumor as possible. Partial removal helps to relieve symptoms by reducing pressure on the brain and reduces the amount of tumor to be treated by radiation therapy or chemotherapy.
Some tumors cannot be removed. In such cases, your doctor may do only a biopsy. A small piece of the tumor is removed so that a pathologist can examine it under a microscope to determine the type of cells it contains. This helps your doctor decide which treatment to use.
Sometimes, a biopsy is done with a needle. Doctors use a special head frame (like a halo) and CT scans or MRI to pinpoint the exact location of the tumor. The surgeon makes a small hole in the skull and then guides a needle to the tumor. Using this technique to do a biopsy or for treatment is called stereotaxis.
Other advanced techniques during surgery include brain mapping to find functional pathways near tumors, endoscopy to perform biopsies and open spinal fluid pathways through a small scope and advanced frameless stereotaxic computer assisted tumor resections. Intraoperative MRI also is available to help maximize tumor removal.

Thelsemia

Thelsemia

thelesemia

The thalassemias are a diverse group of genetic blood diseases. Thalassemia is the most common inherited single gene disorder in the world. Scientists and public health officials predict that thalassemia will become a worldwide issue in the next century. With global improvements in childhood disease prevention and treatment, more focus will be given to diagnosing disorders. It is our hope that by providing education about the disease we can raise awareness, encourage people to get tested for the trait, and spread knowledge about comprehensive treatment.
The thalassemias are a diverse group of genetic blood diseases characterized by absent or decreased production of normal hemoglobin, resulting in a microcytic anemia of varying degree. The thalassemias have a distribution concomitant with areas were malaria is common. People with Thalassemia Minor are able to fight malaria better than those who do not have it - therefore, in parts of the world where malaria existed Thalassemia Minor increased. This was of great value in the past since malaria was rampant and deadly. However, malaria is no longer a problem in many areas of the world, and Thalassemia Minor has no advantage to people in these areas. The alpha thalassemias are concentrated in Southeast Asia, Malaysia and southern China. The beta thalassemias are seen primarily in the Mediterranean Sea area, Africa and Southeast Asia. Due to global migration patterns, there has been an increase in the incidence of thalassemia in North America in the last ten years.
In the thalassemia patient, a mutation or deletion of the genes that control globin production occurs. This leads to a decreased production of the corresponding globin chains and an abnormal hemoglobin ratio. This abnormal ratio leads to decreased synthesis of hemoglobin and the expression of thalassemia. The globin that is produced in normal amounts winds up in excess and forms red cell aggregates or inclusions. These aggregates become oxidized and damage the cell membrane, leading to hemolysis, ineffective erythropoiesis, or both. The quantity and properties of these globin chain aggregates determine the characteristics and severity of the thalassemia.

amorphous silicon solar thin film vs crytalline silicon solar panel

5″ monocrystalline Silicon 5 inch 125 Series Solar Cell
6″ Polycrystalline Silicon 6 inch 156 Series Solar Cell

1. Difference between crystal and amorphous? Daily to see the solid is divided into two major categories of non-crystalline and crystalline, non-crystalline arrangement of atoms within the material is not necessarily the law of the fracture when the fracture is random, such as plastic and glass, and called the crystal material, represent the natural shape of a regular polyhedron, with obvious edges and corners with the plane, the atom is in accordance with its internal law must line up neatly, so when they break off the plane according to certain, such as salt, crystal and so on.

2. Difference between single crystal and polycrystalline? Some of the crystal is composed of many small grains, if the arrangement between the grains are no rules, this is called polycrystalline crystal, such as copper and iron. But there are also the crystal itself is a complete large grains, the crystal is called single crystal, crystal and crystal diamond.

3. Monocrystalline silicon and polycrystalline silicon photovoltaic cells compare? Monocrystalline silicon cells with a cell conversion efficiency, good stability, but the cost is high. Low-cost polycrystalline silicon cells, the conversion efficiency slightly lower than the Czochralski silicon solar cells and materials in a variety of defects such as grain boundaries, dislocations, micro-defects, and material impurities carbon and oxygen, as well as the stained process transition metals.

The first is the advent of solar cell silicon solar cells. Silicon is very abundant on the earth, an element almost everywhere have the presence of silicon can be said to be used without silicon to make solar cells, indeed no shortage of raw materials. But it is not easy to extract, so people in the production of monocrystalline silicon solar cells, they also studied the polycrystalline silicon solar cells and amorphous silicon solar cells, has commercial-scale production of solar cells, also did not jump out of silicon series. In fact, the semiconductor materials for manufacture of solar cells a lot, along with the development of industrial materials, solar cells will be more and more varieties. Research and trial production has been the solar cell, in addition to silicon series, there are cadmium sulfide, gallium arsenide, copper indium selenium and many other types of solar cells, too numerous to mention, the following are a few of the more common solar cells.

Monocrystalline silicon solar cells

Monocrystalline silicon solar cells is currently the fastest developing a solar cell, its composition and production technology has been finalized, the products have been widely used for space and ground facilities. The high purity single crystal silicon solar cells as the raw material rod, 99.999% purity. In order to reduce production costs, and now solar terrestrial applications such as the use of solar-grade silicon rods, material performance has been relaxed. Some semiconductor devices can also be used for processing materials and discard ends of silicon materials, solar cells made by re-drawing a dedicated silicon rods. The slice of silicon rods, generally 0.3 mm thick slices. Wafer after forming, polishing, cleaning and other processes, made of silicon raw material to be processed. Solar cell processing chip, the first doping and diffusion in silicon, usually for the small amount of boron dopant, phosphorus, antimony and so on. Diffusion is the control into the quartz furnace for high temperature diffusion. And then using screen printing will be printed with a good paste made of silicon gate line, after sintering, also made of the back electrode and a gate line in the face of anti-reflection coating source, to prevent a large number of photons reflected from a smooth silicon surface, thus, single-chip silicon solar cells are produced. After single-chip random testing, according to the required specifications can be assembled into solar modules (solar panels), the method used in series and parallel to a certain output voltage and current, and finally with the framework and package materials package. According to the system user can design different size solar module solar cell composed of a variety of square, also known as the solar array. Current silicon photoelectric conversion efficiency of solar cells is about 15%, laboratory results have more than 20%. Also for the space station up to 50% or more solar panels.

Polycrystalline silicon solar cells

Monocrystalline silicon solar cell production requires large amounts of high-purity silicon material, the production of these materials, process complexity, power consumption drastically, the total cost of solar cell production has been over half, combined with the silicon rod was drawn cylindrical, sliced wafer production solar cells is to form a solar module surface low utilization rate. Thus, 80 years, some European and American countries, the development into a polycrystalline silicon solar cells. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells using current materials, mostly a collection contains a lot of single crystal particles, or silicon materials from waste materials and metallurgical grade silicon melt molded. The process is to select a resistivity of 100 to 300 ohms? Cm block of material or a polycrystalline silicon material end to end, after crushing, with the 1:5 mixture of hydrofluoric acid and nitric acid corrosion appropriate, and then spent neutral-ionized water rinse and drying. Quartz crucible installed polysilicon materials, the addition of appropriate amount of boron in silicon, release the casting furnace, heating and melting in a vacuum state. Melted insulation should be about 20 minutes, and then injected into the graphite mold, to be cooled slowly solidified, that have polysilicon ingot. The ingots can be cast cubes to be processed into square slices film solar cells can improve material utilization and easy assembly. Polycrystalline silicon solar cells and solar cell production process is similar to the photoelectric conversion efficiency of about 12%, slightly lower than the silicon solar cells, but the material is simple, to save power consumption, the total production costs low, so get a lot of development. As the technology was improved, the current conversion efficiency of polycrystalline silicon can also be reached around 14%.

Amorphous silicon solar cells

Amorphous silicon solar cells appeared in 1976 with a new thin film solar cells, monocrystalline and polycrystalline silicon solar cells it with the production method is completely different, very little silicon material consumption, lower power consumption, very attractive. Method of manufacturing a variety of amorphous silicon solar cells, the most common is the glow discharge method, as well as reactive sputtering, chemical vapor deposition, electron beam evaporation and thermal decomposition of silane method. Glow discharge method is a Dan Yingrong device pumped into vacuum, hydrogen or argon gas filled diluted silane, with the RF power heating, ionization of silane to form a plasma. Deposition of amorphous silicon film on the substrate being heated. If the silane were mixed in the amount of hydrogenated or hydrogenated boron phosphate can be N-or P-type amorphous silicon film. Substrate materials are generally made of glass or stainless steel. Preparation of amorphous silicon thin film technology which depends mainly on the strict control of pressure, flow rate and RF power, the temperature of the substrate is also very important. The structure of amorphous silicon solar cells there are different, which has a structure called the PiN better battery, it is first deposited on the substrate N-type layer of amorphous silicon doped with phosphorus, and then deposited a layer of undoped i layer, and then deposited a layer of P-type boron-doped amorphous silicon, and finally a layer of electron beam evaporation of antireflection coatings, and deposition of silver electrodes. This production process, a series of deposition chamber can be used in production form a continuous process to achieve mass production. Meanwhile, the thin amorphous silicon solar cells can be made into laminated type, or use to manufacture integrated circuits in a plane, with the appropriate mask technology, a production of multiple batteries in series to obtain higher voltage . Because the average crystalline silicon solar cells around a single voltage of 0.5 volts, and now the production of amorphous silicon tandem solar cells in Japan up to 2.4 volts. The current problem is that of amorphous silicon solar cell conversion efficiency is low, the international advanced level of about 10%, and is not stable enough, often decline down conversion efficiency of the phenomenon, so not a lot of use for large-scale solar power, but mostly with in low light power, such as pocket electronic calculators, electronic watches and clocks and copier and so on. Failure to overcome the drop in efficiency issues, the amorphous silicon solar cells will promote the great development of solar energy, because its low cost, light weight, easier application, it can be combined with the housing of the roof form independent power of households.

In the fierce sun, single crystal solar panels can be transformed more and more non-crystal-type solar energy to electricity more than doubled, but unfortunately, the price of single crystal type of non-crystal-like than the two or three times more expensive, and in the case of non-cloudy Instead, the crystal-type transistor can be almost as much to collect solar energy.

SOLAR OFFICIAL WEBSITE:

Chapter 1-What is solar energy.

Chapter 2-Types of solar electric panels.

Chapter 3-Solar panel system components.

Chapter 4-Types of Solar panel systems.

Chapter 5-Solar Electric VS. Solar hot water.

Chapter 6-Sizing your solar electric system.

Chapter 7-Costing your solar electric system.

Chapter 8-Choosing a solar installer.

Chapter 9-Payback of your solar electric system.

Chapter 10-Rebates Available.

Chapter 11-Solar panel maintenance.

Chapter 12-Solar buyer checklist.

Solar System Pakistan

In solar system the things you need is depend on what you want to do. If you want to turn on just lights, bulbs or lamps. So then what you need is listed under here.

1. Solar Panel
2. Solar Charge Controller
3. Battery
4. DC Lights

These are things that you must have to turn your lights on. Without them it is difficult to power up lights. Solar system works in this order. Solar Panel is giving current to charge controller. Charge controller charges a battery. And lights are powered up by a battery. In this case it is DC lights.

How to connect solar system?

Yes we will tell you about how to connect solar power system together to get it to work. First what you have to do is take a closer look at charge controller.

Charge Controller We can easily see on charge controller that it have been marked with solar panel, battery and lights. Now the thing is to connect correct wires of solar panel, battery and lights to plus to plus and negative to negative.

Solar Energy System We are selling solar panels, charge controllers, batteries, inverters, dc energy saving lights and other equipment for solar energy. If you want to install this system at your home in Pakistan so please contact us by email or call us. We will help you with installation of solar energy system in Pakistan.

Different Types Of Solar Panels

Monocrystal solar panels

Monocrystalline panels use crystalline silicon produced in a large sheet which has been cut to the size of the panel, thus making one large single cell. Metal strips are laid over the entire cell and act as a conductor that captures electrons.


Mono panels are slightly more efficient than Polycrystalline panels but the don't usually cost more than Poly Panels.

Polycrystal panels

Polycrystalline panels use a bunch of small cells put together instead of one large cell. Poly panels are slightly less efficient than mono panels. They are also claimed to be cheaper to manufacturer than mono panels although we have noticed them to be very similarly priced.


There are a couple different ways a polycrystalline silicon cell can be made:
Cast Polysilicon:

In this process, molten silicon is cast in a large block which, when cooled, can be cut into thin wafers to be used in photovoltaic cells. These cells are then assembled in a panel. Conducting metal strips are then laid over the cells, connecting them to each other and forming a continuous electrical current throughout the panel.
String Ribbon Silicon

String ribbon uses a variation of the polycrystalline production process, using the same molten silicon but slowly drawing a thin strip of crystalline silicon out of the molten form. These strips of photovoltaic material are then assembled in a panel with the same metal conductor strips attaching each strip to the electrical current.


It is also said that string ribbon solar panels are even cheaper to manufacturer than the cast polysilicon method. If this were the case then why are String Ribbon Panels the most costly? This technology saves on costs over standard polycrystalline panels as it eliminates the sawing process for producing wafers. Some string ribbon technologies also have higher efficiency levels than other polycrystalline technologies.

Thin Film Panels

Thin film panels are produced very differently from crystalline panels. Instead of molding, drawing or slicing crystalline silicon, the silicon material in these panels have no crystalline structure and can be applied as a film directly on various materials. Variations on this technology use other semiconductor materials like copper indium diselenide (CIS) and cadmium telluride (CdTe). These materials are then connected to the same metal conductor strips used in the other processes, but do not necessarily use the other components typical in photovoltaic panels as they do not require the same level of protection needed for more fragile crystalline cells.


The primary advantages of thin film panels lie in their low manufacturing costs and versatility. Because amorphous silicon and similar semiconductors do not depend on the long, expensive process of creating silicon crystals, they can be produced much more quickly. Because they can be applied in thin layers to different materials, it is also possible to make flexible solar cells.


thin film panels do have several significant drawbacks. They are the least efficient type of solar panel currently available. Thin-film technology also uses silicon with high levels of impurities. This can cause a drop in efficiency within a short period of time.

Conclusion

The best choice for powering your home are going to be Mono or Polycrstal panels. Their higher efficiency and greater durability make them the best option.
If prices are real close, and they should be, monocrystal panels would be our first choice. However, they both are going to get the job done, and do it well!

dcactuators

http://dcactuators.com/

What is a Thin-film Solar Cell?

What is a Thin-film Solar Cell?

A copper indium gallium deselenide solar cell using glass

If you've used a solar-powered calculator, you've seen a solar cell based on thin-film technology. Clearly, the small cell in a calculator is not big and bulky. Most are about an inch (2.5 cm) long, a quarter-inch (0.6 cm) wide and wafer-thin. The thinness of the cell is the defining characteristic of the technology. Unlike silicon-wafer cells, which have light-absorbing layers that are traditionally 350 microns thick, thin-film solar cells have light-absorbing layers that are just one micron thick. A micron, for reference, is one-millionth of a meter (1/1,000,000 m or 1 µm).

Thin-film solar cell manufacturers begin building their solar cells by depositing several layers of a light-absorbing material, a semiconductor onto a substrate -- coated glass, metal or plastic. The materials used as semiconductors don't have to be thick because they absorb energy from the sun very efficiently. As a result, thin-film solar cells are lightweight, durable and easy to use.

There are three main types of thin-film solar cells, depending on the type of semiconductor used: amorphous silicon (a-Si), cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium gallium deselenide (CIGS). Amorphous silicon is basically a trimmed-down version of the traditional silicon-wafer cell. As such, a-Si is well understood and is commonly used in solar-powered electronics. It does, however, have some drawbacks.
One of the biggest problems with a-Si solar cells is the material used for its semiconductor. Silicon is not always easy to find on the market, where demand often exceeds supply. But the a-Si cells themselves are not particularly efficient. They suffer significant degradation in power output when they're exposed to the sun. Thinner a-Si cells overcome this problem, but thinner layers also absorb sunlight less efficiently. Taken together, these qualities make a-Si cells great for smaller-scale applications, such as calculators, but less than ideal for larger-scale applications, such as solar-powered buildings.

Promising advances in non-silicon thin-film PV technologies are beginning to overcome the issues associated with amorphous silicon. On the next page, we'll take a look at CdTe and CIGS thin-film solar cells to see how they compare.

employement

Airblue - a quality airline venture in Pakistan - offers exciting and challenging opportunities for talented and innovative people looking to exploit their full potential and grow with us. We offer excellent working conditions and competitive salary and benefits package including travel privileges. Applications are only accepted online.
Airblue is pleased to offer the following job openings:

Department:	Position:	Location:	# of Openings:
Administration	CFO	ISB - Corporate HQT	1
Commercial	Call Center Counselor	ISB - Call Center	6
	Travel Counselor	KHI - Airport	4
Corporate Affairs	Medical Coordinator	KHI - Airport	1
Corporate Safety	Executive	KHI - Airport	1
Flight Operations Control	Flight Operations Officer	KHI - Airport	1
Flight Services	Cabin Crew - Trainee	ISB - Airport	1
	Cabin Crew - Trainee	KHI - Airport	1
	Performance Executive	KHI - Airport	1
MIS	Network Engineer	ISB - Airport	1

Please Note:
• Airblue does not have any Employment Offices or Agents.
• All Applications for Employment are processed free of cost.
• No Personal Contact or Phone Calls - Please.
• Applicants who are pre-qualified will be called for an interview via email.

Embedded System:

Embedded systems refer to devices, instruments or large engineering structures/systems that are built to handle one or a few pre-established tasks. The computer controlling the whole thing is built into or ‘embedded’ within the device.

Cellphones and personal digital assistants (PDAs) are examples of devices with embedded systems. They both perform a specific number of tasks which are controlled by a built-in computer system. Inertial guidance systems used for aerial navigation or as part of the guidance package of smart bombs and missiles are examples of instruments with embedded systems. A traffic control system (which remotely controls traffic lights without the need for human intervention) is an example of a large engineering structure with an embedded system.

is an example of a large engineering structure with an embedded system.

In truth, the line between ‘embedded’ systems and general purpose systems (which may or may not contain an embedded system) is becoming blurred as technology progresses.

Characteristics of Embedded Systems

The key characteristic of an embedded system is that it is supposed to handle a few simple tasks, although the steps involved in handling or accomplishing that task may be as complex as any computer program. A videogame controller, for example, may be said to have simple tasks – load the game and allow the player to control it through commands entered through the handset. In truth, however, a game controller (especially the newer games built for the X-box or PS3) goes through a series of steps and actions that require as much processing power as a standalone computer. Among the characteristics of modern embedded systems are:

User Interfaces

Originally, an embedded system had no user interface – information and programs were already incorporated into the system (e.g., the guidance system for an Intercontinental Ballistic Missile or ICBM) and there was no need for human interaction or intervention except to install the device and test it.

Many modern embedded systems however, have full-scale user interfaces although these are only inputs for data but are not supposed to provide additional functionality for the system, e.g. QWERTY keyboards for PDAs used to enter names, addresses, phone numbers and notes and even full sized documents. The moment PDAs achieve full desktop computer functionalities, however, they may no longer be considered embedded systems.

Simple Systems which Stem from Limited Functionality

Originally, this referred to basic systems such as switches, small character- or digit-only displays and LEDs intended to show the ‘health’ of the embedded system, but this has also achieved some level of complexity. A cash register or an ATM with touch screen technology is considered an embedded system since it has limited uses, even if the user interface (the touch screen) is a complex system.

CPU Platforms with Microprocessors or Microcontrollers

Again, limited functionality is the key in defining these as embedded systems. In a sense, the Bios chip is considered an embedded system since it has limited functions, and works automatically (when the computer is booted up). Peripherals like the USB can also be considered as embedded systems.

embedded object

An object created with one application and embedded into a document created by another application. Embedding the object, rather than simply inserting or pasting it, ensures that the object retains its original format. In fact, you can modify the embedded object with the original program. In Windows environments, embedding objects is made possible by a technology called OLE.

FPGA-based Form Factor Serves Radar ADC Needs

SPECIAL FEATURE

FPGA-based Form Factor Serves Radar ADC Needs Advances in ADCs, combined with larger, more powerful FPGAs and the new open standard FMC format, are fueling improvements in radar systems. JEREMY BANKS, CURTISS-WRIGHT CONTROLS EMBEDDED COMPUTING

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RTEC10 is an index made up of 10 public companies which have revenue that is derived primarily from sales in the embedded sector. The companies are made up of both software and hardware companies being traded on public exchanges.

COMPANY	PRICE (USD)	CHANGE
Adlink	2.01	1.222%
Advantech	3.30	2.256%
Concurrent Comp	6.11	2.689%
Elma	490.45	2.005%
-   Enea	7.33	0.000%
Interphase	4.51	-0.661%
Kontron	11.49	2.230%
Mercury Comp	18.10	-0.110%
Performance Tech	2.20	4.762%
PLX	3.34	1.520%
Radisys	8.31	0.727%

52 WK HIGH	52 WK LOW	MKT CAP (Million USD)
2.01	1.99	241.83
3.33	3.25	1,705.02
6.15	5.90	56.39
490.45	490.45	112.07
7.40	7.30	129.51
4.53	4.49	31.06
11.49	11.14	639.99
18.37	18.02	546.23
2.20	2.03	24.46
3.36	3.30	148.69
8.34	8.29	202.00

RTEC10 Index: 763.57 (0.91%)

RTEC10 is sponsored by VDC research

 

Article Media

• Figure 1 - Raytheon’s Phalanx Close-In Weapo...
• Figure 2 - FMCs (bottom) can support data thro...

In Electronic Warfare (EW) the difference between life and death can come down to just a few radar pulses. There’s a matter of milliseconds in which a ship’s countermeasure system can sense an oncoming missile threat. Radar signals from that threat won’t even show up until it’s as near as 10 km from target. Once identified the ship’s fire control system can send out a deceptive signal about its position before the enemy weapon has a chance to lock onto the ship’s radar, safely diverting the course of the speeding missile. This makes it critical to improve the speed and resolution at which embedded signal intelligence systems can take incoming analog sensor data and digitally convert it so that it can be processed in a useful way. An example system along those lines is Raytheon’s Phalanx Close-In Weapon System (Figure 1).

Figure 1
Raytheon’s Phalanx Close-In Weapon System is a rapid-fire, computer-controlled, radar-guided gun system designed to defeat anti-ship missiles and other close-in air and surface threats assessment.

The good news is that the newest generation of commercial ADCs, combined with larger, more powerful FPGAs and the new open standard FPGA Mezzanine Card (FMC), can now significantly improve these EW systems through the direct digital conversion of the analog signal, eliminating the need for an intermediary down conversion stage. The resulting performance benefits are helping to change the COTS receiver industry landscape. 

Pushing the ADC Boundaries

Today’s highest end ADCs, with greater bandwidth and higher resolution than previously available, are increasingly being used in demanding military applications to provide direct digital sampling of wideband Receiver Intermediate Frequency (IF) analog sensor data. This results in improved performance and lower costs by eliminating the need for a heterodyne receiver down conversion stage in the system. 

Previous generations of ADC conversion technology have not had the speed or resolution at the required frequencies to function as a true RF front end without down conversion. Today’s newer devices, however, feature multi-Gigasample per second (Gsample/s) converters in both directions with the high resolution needed to directly connect to the RF front end in close proximity to the antenna system. This new capability is fueling increased direct (baseband) conversion.

As recently as two or three years ago, leading off-the-shelf high-end ADCs could only achieve 1.5 to 3 Gbit/s bandwidth performance with 8-bit resolution. Since then, the performance of commercial ADC devices has increased dramatically. Today’s high-end ADCs are approaching 4G sample/s bandwidth with 12-bit resolution. Earlier ADC technology either wasn’t fast enough, or lacked the resolution or the combination of the two to enable direct digital conversion of analog signals. This resulted in more cost and reduced performance because a system would typically require two RF heterodyne receiver front-ends to handle the down conversion stage before the data would get to the ADCs attached to the FPGAs. Today’s FPGAs function as true processors that have large blocks of digital circuitry in which signal processing algorithms such as FFTs can be stored. FPGAs are very good at handling signal processing in the digital domain.

Today’s faster, higher resolution ADCs have the ability to take an input signal at a microwave frequency and convert it at that frequency rather than requiring the use of a costly intermediary down converter. Higher-end ADCs can sample at rates in excess of 3 to 4 Gsamples/s, which approaches the 1.5 GHz L-Band and beyond. Sampling rates that exceed 1 GHz and faster now allow bandwidths of up to 500 MHz to be processed. And the higher bit resolution of the new ADCs has increased system dynamic range, the span from the weakest to the strongest detectable signal that it can handle. 

Today’s high-resolution ADCs can sample at rates near 200 Msamples/s, and soon will reach 250 Msamples/s with 16-bit resolution. They can dramatically enhance the capabilities of wideband receivers by increasing their sensitivity and selectivity, which affects the system’s ability to intercept and characterize captured signals.

FPGAs Make it Possible

The design challenge at these high data rates is how to interface these newly obtainable levels of resolution to the digital domain, a task that traditional processors can’t handle. The answer is a combination of baseboard FPGAs and FMC I/O cards. When combined with larger FPGAs and the new industry standard FMCs, the new generation of ADCs is enabling system designers to integrate open standards-based board systems in which both ADC and DAC capabilities are directly coupled to the processing element, provided by the FPGA. The result is an order of magnitude improvement in latency from input to output. Even better for Space, Weight and Power (SWaP)-constrained embedded systems, the increased bandwidth of the new ADC devices does not come at the cost of a comparable rise in power consumption. We are seeing these devices with power dissipation rated near 2W per converter, which means that a quad-channel FMC will require less than 10W. 

The FMC (VITA 57) standard, recently approved by ANSI, provides a method for directly coupling FPGAs on the baseboard with I/O devices on the small mezzanine FMC board. FMCs enable the board’s bus structure to be bypassed, providing direct I/O to the FPGA processing element on the host card. This drastically improves data rates and reduces latency compared to designs where the I/O devices reside on the main PCB. Another advantage is that FMCs make it easier to tune particular I/O needs with a common processing engine and to upgrade performance as newer and better I/O devices become available without a major baseboard redesign. 

Supporting High Data Rates

In comparison to FMC cards, standard I/O mezzanine cards, such as PMC and XMC, tend to support CPU-type buses such as PCI Express and PCI-X, for which data bandwidth is limited to 1 to 2 Gbytes/s. In a direct one-to-one connection, today’s FPGAs can support the very high data rates provided by the use of locating I/O on FMC cards, while eliminating the issue of latency resulting from the bus structure. Compared to XMC mezzanine cards, and depending on the devices used, FMCs can deliver an order of magnitude increase in bandwidth and similar reduction in latency. FMCs can support data throughput rates of 5 to 10 Gbytes/s, while XMC provides 500 Mbytes/s to 1 Gbyte/s. Key to the high speed of FMCs is the simplicity of their design: the FMC specification makes provision for a large number of parallel I/O connections, up to 160 single-ended (80 differential pair) signals, in addition to high-speed serial connections, directly connected to the FPGA(s) located on the base board. Figure 2 shows a side by side comparison between an XMC board and an FMC board.

Figure 2
FMCs (bottom) can support data throughput rates of 5 to 10 Gbytes/s, while XMC (top) provides 500 Mbytes/s to 1 Gbyte/s. The simple FMCs design also allows for a large number of parallel I/O connections.

Dual ADCs on FMC

An example of an FMC card designed for use with an FPGA host card such as the FPE320, is Curtiss-Wright Controls’ ADC511 Dual Channel Analog Input FMC, which features dual 400 Msample/s 14-bit Texas Instruments ADS5474 ADCs. Each of the module’s ADCs supports a sampling rate up to 400 Msamples/s, within an analog bandwidth of over 1.7 GHz, and provides 14-bits of digital output. By routing the ADC device interfaces directly to the FMC connector, the ADC511 enables an FPGA on the host board to directly control and receive data. A choice of sample clock sources is provided, including an onboard source that supports sampling rates of 300, 320 and 400 Msamples/s, as well as the ability to use an external sample clock. Input and output triggers are provided enabling the number of input channels to be increased by synchronizing multiple ADC511 modules.

Thanks to the new generations of ADC, FPGA and FMC products, we are seeing more and more applications in which direct conversion is occurring. For COTS signal processing system designers the trends are beneficial. Life-saving high-performance EW systems can be deployed faster and cheaper using commercial devices in designs that can flexibly be upgraded and modified using low-cost FMC mezzanine modules.

 

embedded system

A specialized computer system that is part of a larger system or machine. Typically, an embedded system is housed on a single microprocessor board with the programs stored in ROM. Virtually all appliances that have a digital interface -- watches, microwaves, VCRs, cars -- utilize embedded systems. Some embedded systems include an operating system, but many are so specialized that the entire logic can be implemented as a single program.

Software Engineer-Embedded Systems ( DO-178B )

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Job Information

Company:

Sierra Nevada Corporation

Location:

Reno, NV

Industries:

Aerospace and Defense

Job Type:

Full Time Employee

Years of Experience:

7+ to 10 Years

Education Level:

Bachelor's Degree

Highly competitive total compensation package, including 401K (150% match), tuition reimbursement and relocation assistance.

Contact Information

Company:

Sierra Nevada Corporation

Job Reference Code:

10-SPAR:091

Please Visit Our Website at www.sncorp.com

Bringing Tomorrow's Technology To Today!

Join Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) and help us bring tomorrow’s technology to today! SNC offers an exciting, dynamic and challenging work environment where you can expand your career opportunities and achieve professional growth. Employees are our greatest assets. Our environment encourages employees to unleash creativity, and strive for new ideas, technologies and processes.

Job Description

Software Engineer-Embedded Systems ( DO-178B )

Sierra Nevada Corporation's Communication, Navigation, Surveillance / Air Traffic Management business is continuing to grow in support of its customers and seeks qualified and highly motivated individuals to join our team in Sparks, NV. 

Sparks is immediately adjacent to Reno and only 20 minutes drive from scenic Lake Tahoe in the heart of the Sierra. In addition to the night life, this area offers world class skiing, mountain biking, backpacking, hiking, kayaking – all of the outdoor adventures imaginable.

We provide capability to both military and civil aviation users supplying them with state of the art radar based technology solutions for 3 Dimensional Imaging, Sense and Avoid,, automatic landing, navigation and communications systems. We design, build, integrate, and operate these highly capable platforms around the world. 

If you are ready to work alongside some of the industry’s top engineers and scientists to shape the future of this field, then now is the time to make SNC part of your future. Look over the available positions below and apply as indicated. We look forward to hearing from you.

Candidate will join a talented team of experienced software engineers in the development of a new DO-178B Level B, FAA certified Enhanced Flight Vision System.  Tasks will require development of real-time, embedded software under FAA DO-178B development processes ultimately yielding FAA certification for Enhanced Flight Vision capability comprised of non-TSO airborne radar systems. 

Successful execution of these tasks requires experience in developing software for embedded, real-time applications meeting program schedules and budgets. 

The Software Engineer will generate detailed, measurable artifacts to evidence progress in support of key program milestones during the course of the development. This will include a basic understanding of cost and schedule reporting and measurement leveraging the Earned Value system.

In return for the above, you can expect challenging work alongside some of today’s brightest engineers and scientists, competitive salary, industry leading benefits and excellent growth opportunities.
Candidate must be a U.S. citizen and must be eligible to obtain and maintain a security clearance.
Candidate shall have 2+ years of relevant experience in real-time, embedded systems software development.  
Experience developing DO-178B and/or radar software.  

The ideal candidate will have a B.S. Degree, or higher, in Electrical Engineering, Computer Engineering, Computer Science or a related technical field. 


*SNC is an EEO employer committed to recruiting a diverse workforce.
Apply online for immediate consideration at www.sncorp.com or send inquiries to Monique.Moultrie@SNCorp.com .

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APPLY

EMBEDDED CONTROL SYSTEM DESIGN/AVIATION

The Wikibook of

Embedded Control Systems Design

This Applications chapter discusses the entire system that enables planes to fly and communicate with each other. Taking-off and landing multiple planes at major airports for instance, is a difficult task and requires a lot of subsystems. The main functionalities of the entire flight management system are navigation, flight planning and aircraft control.

There are three main levels in the full flight management system:

• Air Traffic Control

ATC contains everything that enables planes to communicate directly with each other, or through a control tower. This level is essential to create a global coordinated system that transports people or equipment.

• Flight Control System

FCS is the entire system that enables one plane to take-off, stay in the air, and land. A lot of an airplane's embedded control systems are linked to this functionality and are a part of the Flight Control System as a component.

• Components

Each component has a specific task in an airplane. Most of them have a very straightforward functionality and are easy to describe as an embedded system. For example: door opening mechanism, engine control, inflight entertainment system, Integrated Modular Avionics (IMA), black box, ...

The goal of this applications chapter is to point out the requirements of the different system levels in aviation and their impact on the design. There are many links to other sites for detailed functionality information.

Free Ieee Format For Research Papers Downloads: Mendeley ...

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Paper Submission

The paper submission deadline for the conference proceedings AND POST CONFERENCE PROCEEDINGS has passed. Thanks to all of you that have submitted to DMIN'06.

Information on CAMERA READY SUBMISSIONS are at the bottom of this page!

We welcome all contributions through theoretical research papers and industrial reports and case studies on applications in form of regular research papers of 7 pages IEEE style. In addition, we welcome student research proposals as short papers of 4 pages plus plenary presentations to receive guidance, online demonstrations of prototype software systems of 1 page and presentation in informal poster sessions. Accepted submissions include:

• regular research papers (max. 7 pages IEEE style, formal presentation)
• regular industry & application reports (max. 7 pages IEEE style, informal poster presentation)
• short research papers (max. 4 pages IEEE style, poster presentation)
• short industry & application reports (max. 4 pages IEEE style, poster presentation)
• student research proposals (max. 4 pages IEEE style, formal presentation)
• software demonstrations (max. 1 page IEEE style, poster presentation / online demonstration)
• posters (max. 1 page IEEE style, poster presentation)

General Guidelines

Prospective authors are invited to submit their draft paper (between 1 to 7 pages, standard 2 column IEEE style) via our online submission systems by Feb. 20, 2006 extended deadline: 6 March 2006  (passed). Online submissions of PDF-files via the conference management system are encouraged. In selected exceptions an E-mail submission as MS Word document or Adobe PDF formats or Fax or postal submissions are also acceptable. The first page of the draft paper should include: Paper Size: US Letter format (8.5" x 11") Paper Length: Maximum 8 pages, including figures, tables & references Paper formatting: double column, single spaced, 10pt font. Margins: Left, Right, and Bottom: 0.75" (19mm). The top margin must be 0.75" in (19 mm), except for the title page where it must be 1" (25 mm). File Size Limitation: 4.0MB. Do not number your manuscript pages. The first page must include: Title of the paper Name, affiliation, postal address, E-mail address, telephone number, and fax number for each author Underline the name of the author who will be presenting the paper (if accepted) -  This will not be required for the camera ready version!  a maximum of 5 keywords - This will not be required for the camera ready version!  Violations of any of the above paper specifications may result in rejection of your paper!!! You may download preliminary information on the IEEE style below. Please consider, that although these files are IEEE information for submissions to the WCCI'06 conference, they are also the requirement for the DMIN'06. This information may be updated for the final camera ready submission. For users of Microsoft Word IEEE Formatting Template for MS Word IEEE Formatting Example Document in MS Word  IEEE Example Document as Adobe PDF (extend author information!) --> To create pdf files we suggest using Adobe Acrobat 7.1 or the freeware software cutepdf For users of LATEX IEEE Formatting Information & Files for LATEX IEEE Example Document as Adobe PDF (extend author information!)

Online Submission

To submit your paper please visit the online conference system for DMIN'06 hosted by conference master. Please submit papers as soon as possible (from 1. January 2006) to ensure early feedback.

Review Process

Papers will be evaluated for originality, significance, clarity, and soundness. Each paper will be refereed by two researchers in the topical area. To reflect upon feedback from last year we will extend the constructive feedback given within the review. Please consult the pages for the Review Process for additional information.

We particularly encourage submissions of industrial applications and case studies from practitioners. To reflect the requirements of an application or project centric case study presentation, these will be subject to different review criteria. In particular, they will not be evaluated using predominantly theoretical research criteria of originality etc., but will take general interest and presentation stronger into consideration. The camera-ready papers will be reviewed by one person.

Final Papers

The length of the camera-ready papers (if accepted) will be limited to the pager restrictions of the paper category( e.g. 7 IEEE style pages for regular research or application papers). Papers must not have been previously published or currently submitted for publication elsewhere.

Please submit your camera ready paper (following the instructions provided below) and register by the due date. In registering, please make sure you follow the instructions: make sure to use the registration number provided WITHIN THE TEXT OF THE ACCEPTANCE EMAIL, STARTING with "DMI55xx", and not just the 1 or 2 digits used within previous correspondence. For example, use "DMI5587" instead of "#87". For single digit internal paper numbers, include a leading zero, e. "#7" becomes "DMI5507".

In submitting, please submit your paper within the correct paper category! Although DMIN paper categories may differentiate between Application and Research papers for creation of coherent sessions, WORLDCOMP submission does not differentiate this. Simply submit all "regular" papers with 7 pages as a regular research paper and all "short" papers as short research papers. We will later allocate you to research or practitioner sessions!

Accepted DMIN Categories --> submit as WORLDCOMP categories:

• regular research papers (max. 7 pages IEEE style, formal presentation)
  --> RRP regular research papers
• regular industry & application reports (max. 7 pages IEEE style, informal poster presentation)
  --> RRP regular research papers
• short research papers (max. 4 pages IEEE style, poster presentation)
  --> SRP short research papers
• short industry & application reports (max. 4 pages IEEE style, poster presentation)
  --> SRP short research papers
• student research proposals (max. 4 pages IEEE style, formal presentation)
  --> SRP short research papers
• software demonstrations (max. 1 page IEEE style, poster presentation / online demonstration)
  --> PST poster
• posters (max. 1 page IEEE style, poster presentation)
  --> PST poster

Conference Proceedings

The conference proceedings will be published by CSREA Press (ISBN) in hardcopy. The proceedings will be available for distribution at the conference .

Some accepted papers will also be considered for journal publication (soon after the conference). All conference proceedings published by CSREA Press are considered for inclusion in major database indexes that are designed to provide easy access to the current literature of the sciences (database examples: ISI Thomson Scientific, IEE INSPEC, DBLP, ...).